Encarta Timelines - 5000 BC Early Chinese Civilization to beginning of the Shang Dynasty

5000? BC

Early Chinese Civilization

Civilization develops in China, near Yangshao. These neolithic farmers practice slash-and-burn agriculture, moving often in search of fresh soil. They raise dogs and pigs, make pottery, and use stone tools.

4500? BC

Plow Agriculture Develops

Early plows aid agricultural production by turning the soil to bring nutrients closer to the surface. Plows also enable scattered seeds to take root more easily.


4500 BC

Bronze Age Begins in Southeast Asia

The Bronze Age is the period in a culture's development when most tools and weapons are made of bronze. Bronze technology appears at different times in different places. It appears as early as in Thailand, and as late as AD 1000 in pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas. Some cultures move directly from stone to iron, bypassing bronze. The Bronze Age in the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean ends about 1200 BC. In the Americas, it ends when iron is introduced by European colonists in the 1500s AD.


4200? BC

Dawn of the Sumerian Civilization

The first settlements are present in southern Mesopotamia, where the Sumerian civilization will flourish. The Sumerian language may have come with later immigrants. Townships begin to form, such as that at Eridu, traditionally the first in the area. The first move is made to occupy the marshland of the twin rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, probably by people from the Iranian plateau to the east.


4000? BC - 3000? BC

Early Mesopotamian Cities

The first Mesopotamian cities appear during the 3000s BC, in the plain where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow into the Persian Gulf. These cities have defensive walls and large areas devoted to public buildings. Temples are built on platforms called ziggurats. The temples are the site of religious as well as economic activity, from grain storage to craft production. Cities such as Uruk, Umma, and Lagash draw people away from the countryside, perhaps because warfare makes it dangerous to live outside city walls. Warfare becomes a path to wealth and power for some. Kings emerge as secular leaders who protect and keep order for their people, gain new wealth by conquest, and balance the power of priests and other officials. Strong kings form confederations with other city-states, providing a foundation for future nations and empires.


4000 BC

Egyptians Build Dam

The first dam of which record exists is built on Egypt’s Nile river. The dam diverts water from a site at the apex of the river’s delta and Egyptians build the city of Memphis at this site. Over time, dams become integral to human civilization. Among other things, they are useful for water storage and to help prevent or moderate flooding. The lakes behind these dams are frequently used for irrigation.


4000 BC

Chinese Plan Cities

Early Chinese communities plan cities, which are often arranged according to a grid pattern with intersecting streets at right angles to each other.


4000? BC

Egyptians Embalm Dead

Egyptians probably originate the art of embalming bodies after death. The practice is most likely religious in origin.


4000? BC

People Domesticate Horses

In central Asia and Persia, horses serve human beings in a variety of ways: as beasts of burden, as chargers upon which soldiers ride, as a means of transportation, and as a means to participate in sporting events.


3900? BC - 3600? BC

Ubaid Culture Develops in Sumer

The Ubaid culture develops in Sumer, at the head of the Persian Gulf. The people drain the land and use boats for fishing.


3800? BC

Chinese Use Brushes to Paint

People in China use brushes to paint or decorate objects long before brushes are used for writing. The brush later becomes the preferred writing implement throughout East Asia.


3800? BC

Nails Improve Construction

The invention of nails ensures increasingly durable buildings, carts, and boats.


3600? BC

Uruk Founded in Sumer

The Sumerian city of Uruk (the biblical Erech) is founded.


3500 BC

Potter's Wheel Invented

Invented during the 3000s BC, the potter’s wheel permits the throwing of more pots than was possible using the earlier method of hand molding and coiling.


3500? BC - 3000? BC

Towns and Cities Appear

In Sumeria, the appearance of towns and cities coincides with the production and distribution of goods through trade. Urban areas also develop beneficial relations with surrounding rural areas as peasants supply food to the cities and towns.


3500? BC

Sumerians Invent the Wheel

The Sumerians invent the wheel. The Sumerian wheel consists of two or three wooden segments held together by transverse struts that rotate on a wooden pole. This invention transforms transportation, warfare, and industry. It also suggests that draft animals had been tamed by this date and that metallurgy for making saws and axles is already available. Evidence indicates that the wheel was invented only once and then spread to Asia and Europe.


3500 BC - 3000 BC

Mining of Metals

The mining industry takes shape by about 3000 BC, in societies capable of mobilizing a large work force for an extended period of time. Mining is crucial for the development of metallurgy, especially on a large scale.


3500? BC - 1500? BC

Andean Valdivia Culture

Combining food gathering with bean farming, the Valdivia people of the northern Andes establish permanent settlements. They begin to make pottery and build ceremonial mounds and public architecture. Their society becomes increasingly stratified.


3450? BC

Sumerians Invent the Chariot

The chariot is invented in Ur and Tutub in Sumer. The early chariot has solid wheels that rotate on a fixed axle. The main platform is made of wood and is protected by side screens framed with wood and covered with skins. Drawn by a pair of oxen, the chariots are mounted by both spear-carriers and charioteers.


3400? BC

Egyptians Use Numeric Symbols

Egyptians adopt special symbols for 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000. This number system enables them to record very large numbers.


3400? BC - AD 641?

Egyptians Practice Mummification

Egyptians begin to mummify dead bodies. The art of mummification reaches its zenith during the 21st Dynasty, which begins in 1070 BC. By this time, Egyptians have developed a system in which the internal organs are removed, preserved, wrapped, and put back into the abdomen and chest cavity of the body, which has been dried with powdered natron, a sodium bicarbonate.

3300? BC

Jemdet-Nasr Period Begins in Sumer

Sumer is temporarily dominated by peoples from the Iranian hills in what is known as the Jemdet-Nasr period. In the south, more cities appear, and signs of Sumerian influence are seen in Egypt.


3300? BC

Writing Appears

Egyptians develop the first known system of writing, which consists of hieroglyphic symbols that represent objects, sounds, and ideas.


3200? BC

Division of Labor Appears in Sumer

Division of labor appears in the closed societies of Sumer and Egypt. In particular, the merchant and the metalworker are apparent.


3100? BC

First Sailing Ships

Egyptians construct the first sailing ships in order to better navigate upstream on the Nile River. The vessels, as depicted in a vase painting from the period, are framed in wood and have sails hung between two masts. Because many more goods can be hauled by boat than by land, the sails facilitate increased transportation and trade on the Nile and in the Mediterranean Sea.


3000? BC

Abacus Invented

People in southwest Asia use an early form of the abacus to perform calculations. Other early civilizations also used some form of the abacus.


3000 BC - 1000 BC

Stonehenge Built in Three Stages

Stonehenge, a monument composed of concentric circles of stone oriented toward the sun’s position on the summer solstice, is constructed in England. Built in three stages over many centuries, it serves a religious purpose but its full significance remains a mystery.


3000? BC - 600? BC

Mesopotamians Build Ziggurats

The people of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) build massive step-sided temples of mud brick called ziggurats to honor local deities. The Mesopotamians begin building ziggurats before 3000 BC and will continue the tradition until about 600 BC. The Babylonian temple-tower of Etemenanki (perhaps the Tower of Babel) will be considered the most famous of all ziggurats.


3000? BC

Cuneiform Writing Invented in Sumer

Cuneiform (wedge-shaped) writing is invented by the Sumerians at Uruk. Consisting initially of about 1,400 symbols, it is first used to make inventories of goods and to record transactions on clay tablets. The cuneiform script gradually improves over the next few centuries, but knowledge of it is lost after the first century AD, following the development of papyrus.


3000 BC - 2300 BC

Sumerian Empire

A people who become known as Sumerians migrate to the region near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The civilization they create is characterized by a flourishing of religious and philosophical thought, innovations in art and crafts, and a widely accepted language. Sumerians develop the first cuneiform script and establish several thriving cities, including Ur and the cultural center Nippur. When the empire declines and the Sumerians can no longer defend against invasion, the Semitic ruler Sargon the Great conquers the civilization.


3000? BC

Cities of Southern Sumer Form Federation

The southern Sumerian cities form a short-lived federation under the holy city of Nippur.


3000 BC - 30 BC

Ancient Egyptian Art

In Egypt, painting tends to be linear, with very little concern for matters of perspective or depth. Paintings and sculptures are traditionally placed in tombs, to assist the soul in the afterlife. These pieces convey an ideal essence, consistent with Egyptian belief, appropriate to the timeless existence awaiting the departed souls. Changes in art take place very slowly, emphasizing continuity over experimentation. The Egyptian sense of line and color are superb. Existing examples of Egyptian art are primarily associated with tombs.


3000? BC

Sumerians Develop Number System

The Sumerians of Babylon develop a sexagesimal (based on 60) numbering system for recording financial transactions. In this system, the order of the numbers determines their relative, or unit value (place-value), although no zero value is used. The system continues to be used for mathematics and astronomy until the 17th century AD and is still used today for measuring angles and time.


3000 BC

First Known Dentist

An Egyptian doctor, Hesi-Re, specializes in the treatment of teeth. He uses a variety of herbs, spices, animal parts, and incantations to treat toothaches and swelling gums.


2920 BC - 2575 BC

Early Dynastic Period of Egypt

Egyptian culture begins to develop in the Nile River valley, with distinct cultures forming in Upper and Lower Egypt. Rulers of the 0 Dynasty unify Egypt around 3000 BC, marking the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period. A system of administration using records written on papyrus develops, making the scribe a person of high status.


2900? BC

Cuneiform Writing Improves

The Sumerians improve the cuneiform script by introducing a phonetic element, by which some signs come to represent distinct words and syllables.


2900? BC

Biblical Deluge Occurs

The Deluge or Flood recorded in Sumerian and biblical legend happens most likely around this time. Archeological evidence suggests more than one flood occurred.


2900 BC

Mesopotamians Keep Slaves

Mesopotamians document the practice of keeping slaves in written records dating from about 2900 BC. While forms of bondage have likely occurred earlier, slavery seems more closely associated with the formation of cities and civilization.


2900? BC

First Schools

Scribes learn their trades in religious schools in Mesopotamia. From there they move into government service.


2800 BC

Seat of Power in Sumer Shifts North

Supremacy in Sumer shifts for a while to the more northerly city of Kish.


2700? BC

Egyptians Write on Papyrus

Egyptians write wisdom texts to be used for social and moral instruction. The books are written on papyrus, an early form of paper made from reeds growing in the Nile River. Papyrus is used as the principle writing material in the region for more than 2,000 years.


2700? BC

Mesopotamians Religious Records

Cuneiform texts dating from the 2000s BC indicate that each Mesopotamian city has its own deity. For Nippur the deity is Enlil; for Babylon, Marduk. Later, Semitic gods and goddesses such as Ishtar join the original Sumerian pantheon. Priests interpret omens of the gods by reading the entrails of sacrificed animals. Many of the religious ideas of the Mesopotamians are contained in the epic Gilgamesh.


2700 BC - 2200 BC

Old Kingdom of Egypt

The construction of the first Egyptian pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza, demonstrates the power of the Egyptian pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. Ra, the sun god, becomes the spiritual father of the pharaohs of this period, and building elaborate temples becomes both the proof and the source of the greatness of these pharaohs.


2675 BC

Gilgamesh of Uruk Revolts Against Kish

Gilgamesh, King of the Sumerian city of Uruk, revolts against another Sumerian city, Kish. He becomes a legendary hero, and later, an epic is written about him.


2670? BC

Rise of Power in Ur

The Sumerian city of Ur first comes to prominence under its first ruler, King Mesanepada.


2650? BC

Egyptians Create Chair

Egyptians create the chair, the earliest known piece of furniture. It is a crude stool carved from a conveniently shaped piece of wood. Within a few centuries, Egyptian chairs will become more elaborate, featuring legs carved in the shapes of animal legs and seats of woven rush.


2650? BC

China Produces Silk

In the 2600s BC, people in China begin weaving fibers from silkworm cocoons into fabric. Silk soon becomes a major trade item. China keeps the silk-making process a secret until about AD 550.


2630? BC

Early Runner

The Egyptian king Djoser is depicted running a race on a stone relief in the Step Pyramid. This relief is one of the earliest known representations of a runner in athletic competition.


2600? BC

Dental Prosthetics Introduced

Egyptian dentists create the first known dental prosthetic device: a bridge consisting of a real tooth that is held in place by gold wire. Present-day Egyptologists do not know whether this device was worn by a living person or was added after death as part of the mummification process.


2575? BC

Sneferu Founds 4th Dynasty

Egyptian pharaoh Sneferu founds the 4th, or Memphite, Dynasty in the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt. He will build the first true pyramid, with smooth sides, at Dashur.


2551 BC - 2472 BC

Egyptians Build Pyramids at Giza

The pyramids at Giza are one of the Seven Wonders of the World. They include the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the largest ever built; the pyramid of Khafre, built by Khufu’s son; and the pyramid of Menkaure, built by Khufu’s grandson. Made of limestone and granite, the pyramids at Giza are among the greatest structures ever built by human hands.


2500? BC

Wheeled Vehicles

Wheeled vehicles appear in the Indus Valley and the Central Asian steppes.


2500? BC

Egyptians Produce Glass

Glass is first produced in Egypt by melting silica sand at very high temperatures. The art of glassblowing appears to originate in Syria in the 1st century BC.


2500 BC

First Library

A temple in the Babylonian city of Nippur is filled with clay tablets—the world’s first library.


2500? BC

Egyptians Make Glass Beads

Egyptians make glass beads—the earliest glass objects known. They cut and polish the glass after it cools rather than molding the glass while it is hot.


2500? BC

Wheat and Barley Cultivated

Wheat and barley are cultivated at Mohenjo-Daro on the Indus River. The city’s inhabitants also eat millet, dates, melons, and other fruits and vegetables.


2500? BC

Indus Valley Sculptures

Artists of Indus Valley civilization (modern Pakistan and western India) create magnificent sculptures, often of ceramic. Most of these sculptures represent their agrarian lifestyle.


2500? BC

Great Sphinx Built

The Great Sphinx is built at Giza, probably by Egyptian king Khafre (or Chephren), whose pyramid rises directly behind the sphinx. Carved from a single piece of limestone, the Great Sphinx is about 20 m (about 66 ft) high and about 73 m (about 240 ft) long.


2500? BC

Harappāns Build with Bricks

Harappâns Build with Bricks Harappâns at Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus River basin use brick to line their wells and to build drainage systems. Most houses have indoor toilets.


2500? BC - 1700? BC

Indus Valley Civilization

At the beginning of the Indus Valley civilization, writing first appears in South Asia at Harappâ. The use of baked bricks and the industries of pottery and metal tool production help develop the culture, which innovates town planning and the establishment of uniform standards of weights and measures. The Indus Valley civilization spreads with extensive trade networks, especially to the southeast. The city of Mohenjo-Daro has examples of town life, with public buildings and households equipped with bathrooms and plumbing.


2500? BC

Minoans Make Bronze Objects

The Minoan civilization of Crete learns to make bronze and begins to create useful objects from the metal alloy.


2500? BC

Seed Drills Used for Planting

Farmers in Mesopotamia and China use early forms of seed drills. One form is a funnel attached to the back of a plow. The seed drill deposits seeds evenly into the plowed furrow, greatly enhancing agricultural production.


2454 BC

Eannatum Comes to Power in Sumer

King Eannatum of Lagash, one of Sumer's great kings, becomes head of the southern cities and possibly of Kish and the northern cities. He erects a victory monument, the Stele of the Vultures, commemorating his exploits. This monument shows the earliest known picture of an ordered formation of armed infantrymen.


2415 BC

Egyptian Religious Texts Written

One of the earliest known Egyptian funerary texts is carved into the walls inside the pyramid of Unas, the last king of the 5th Dynasty, about 2400 BC. Funerary texts, intended to guide the soul through the world of the dead, indicate that Egyptian religious belief assumes a unity between cosmic and human orders. The principal gods of this religion are Ra, god of the sun; Osiris, god of the underworld; and Horus, god of the sky. The cycle of renewal seen in the annual flooding of the Nile may have influenced Egyptian religion’s emphasis on the renewal of life after death. Much evidence of Egyptian religious belief comes from surviving funerary texts, collectively called the Book of the Dead.


2400? BC

Sumerians Develop Calendar

Sumerian scribes develop a calendar consisting of twelve 30-day months (360 days).


2400 BC

Domestication of the Camel

The Bactrian, or two-humped camel, becomes an important beast of burden, especially in arid parts of Asia. Its domestication is crucial to the development of long-distance trade. The Arabian camel, or dromedary, which has a single hump, will become valuable in the development of trans-Saharan trade following its domestication in 100 BC.


2370 BC

Sumerian City of Kish Has New Queen

The Sumerian city of Kish comes under the rule of a queen who is described as once having been a barmaid or brothel-keeper.


2350? BC

Early Law Code

Uruinimgina, the king of Lagash in Mesopotamia, creates one of the first law codes. Written onto the walls of public buildings, the code addresses criminal punishment, rights, and the delegation of public authority. Uruinimgina justifies his code as a way to protect the weak and the widowed against the powerful.


2350? BC

Harappāns Invent Writing Method

Harappâns Invent Writing Method The Harappâns invent a method of writing that consists of 500 characters. They also use a system of weights and measures in which lower weights follow a binary (two-digit) system and higher weights follow a decimal (ten-digit) system.


2350 BC

Harappāns Build Public Structures

Harappâns Build Public Structures Harappâns exhibit skill in town planning and in building structures, including drainage systems. In the city of Harappâ, central storehouses, lines of workers’ dwellings, and communal bathhouses indicate the presence of a government and a regimented way of life.


2340 BC

Lugalzagesi Reigns in Sumer

King Lugalzagesi of the Sumerian city of Umma, an ambitious ruler, seeks to revive the old Sumerian League and the holy city of Nippur. He defeats the Sumerian city of Lagash and boasts that he rules from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea.


2335? BC

Sargon I Unites Akkad and Sumer

Akkadian king Sargon I unites Sumer and Akkad in Mesopotamia, founding a dynasty that lasts 120 years. He knocks down the defensive walls of conquered cities, and installs governors and Akkadian garrisons. He imposes the Akkadian language and cuneiform writing, uniform weights and measures, and standardized forms of administration, thus boosting the flow of trade and creating an enormous bureaucracy. His celebrated rule is an inspiration to later empire-builders.


2300? BC

Babylonians Make the First Maps

Babylonians create the earliest-known maps on clay tiles. Most of these maps are land surveys made for the purpose of collecting taxes.


2300? BC

Early Egyptian Metal Statue

Egyptian artists create a life-size metal sculpture of King Pepi I by hammering copper sheets into shape around a wooden core. The wood is removed by the time the statue is buried in the temple of Hierakonpolis.


2300 BC

Sargon I Trades with Lebanon

King Sargon of Sumer trades for frankincense from Lebanon and prospects for silver in the Taurus Mountains.


2255 BC - 2242 BC

Egyptian Adventurer Harkhuf Explores Nubia

Harkhuf, an official under the Egyptian rulers Merenre and Pepi II, leads four expeditions to the region south of Egypt known as the land of Yam (modern scholars believe Yam to be part of ancient Nubia). Harkhuf studies the people and resources of the area and trades with the local population.


2255? BC

Naram-Sin Expands Sumerian Empire

Sargon's grandson, Naram-Sin, becomes king of Sumer after the short but unsuccessful reigns of his brothers. He extends his father's kingdom northward into the city of Mari and the land later to be known as Assyria. He also expands eastward into Elam and the land later to be known as Persia. Subsequently, he has to contend with 17 rebel nations, one of which may have been the Hittites, which are emerging on the Anatolian plateau.


2250? BC

Replicas of the Dead Placed in Tombs

Egyptians begin placing stone or wood models of the deceased in tombs. They believe that the greater the number of replicas in a tomb, the greater the chance the dead person will be resurrected.


2250 BC

Naram-Sin Sends Daughters to Mari

King Naram-Sin of Sumer installs his daughters, probably as high priestesses, in the conquered town of Mari.


2250? BC

Beetle Motif Appears in Jewelry

Egyptians wear amulets, rings, and other articles of jewelry that are shaped like the scarab beetle, which they regard as a sacred symbol of immortality.


2246 BC - 2152 BC

Reign of Pepi II

Pepi II comes to the Egyptian throne as a young child and is said to rule for 94 years. After his reign, the Old Kingdom lapses into a period of internal strife and revolution, leading to what is known as Egypt's First Intermediate Period.


2218 BC

Sumerian Empire Swept Away

The Sumerian Empire is swept away by barbarians from the mountains to the north, whom the Sumerians call the Guti or “the Vipers from the Hills.” The Gutian invasion and the ensuing confusion are described as a time of terror in Sumerian literature.


2205? BC - 1766? BC

Xia Dynasty

Although reliable historical evidence does not exist, legend points to a king named Yu as the founder of the Xia dynasty around 2206 BC. After taming the flooded Huang He river, Yu is chosen to rule according to the custom of electing kings. He forges a powerful confederacy of states, and his son is elected to succeed him. According to the legend, it is in this way that the throne becomes hereditary.


2200? BC

Minoans Build Round Communal Tombs

Round communal tombs are built in the Mesara plain of Crete. They are early predecessors to beehive-shaped tholos tombs, built from 1600 BC to 1200 BC. These burial sites help 20th-century archaeologists understand Minoan civilization.


2200? BC - 1200? BC

Minoan Civilization in Crete

Sometime between 7000 and 6000 BC, colonizers voyage to the island of Crete and establish settlements. By 2000 BC the Minoan civilization is established and the town of Knossos has a population of about 10,000 people. Crete has organized into a connected system of regional centers with public shrines, palaces, and public facilities for grain storage and other economic activities. The Cretans write in a hieroglyphic script. Their civilization is called Minoan after the legend of King Minos, keeper of the mythical Minotaur.


2180? BC

Mesopotamians Build Tunnel

Workers in Mesopotamia build one of the earliest known tunnels, used to transport goods under the Euphrates River. To construct the tunnel, they divert the river from its bed, dig a trench under the dry riverbed, line the trench with a tube of bricks, and then return the river to its original flow. Although no firm evidence for the tunnel will survive for posterity, records will point to its construction.


2150 BC

Early Engineering Design

The Babylonian architect Gudea of Lagash engraves the plan of a temple in stone—the earliest engineering graphics in the world.


2144? BC - 2124 BC

Gudea Rules in Lagash

King Gudea of Lagash in Sumer achieves fame as a good ruler, although his reign seems to be at the sufferance of the Guti (the mountain tribesmen from the north who destroyed the Sumerian Empire in 2218 BC). During his reign, Gudea rebuilds a ziggurat, and later, he is deified. Gudea's reign is attested by many statues, some with inscriptions.


2134 BC - 2040 BC

First Intermediate Period in Egypt

As the unified Old Kingdom of Egypt declines, it breaks apart into rival states and the First Intermediate Period begins in 2134 BC. During this time, Thebes gains control over Upper Egypt, and the Heracleopolitans control Lower Egypt.


2113? BC

Ur-Nammu Builds an Empire

Sumerians regain control in Mesopotamia with the decline of Sargon I and his Akkadian dynasty. Ur-Nammu revives Sumeria with the creation of the 3rd dynasty of Ur. The 3rd dynasty rules nearly all of Mesopotamia and flourishes as Ur-Nammu sponsors extensive building, irrigation, and re-population of the countryside.


2100? BC

One Month Added to Sumerian Calendar

A month is added to the Sumerian calendar to bring the lunar calendar in line with the solar year.


2100? BC

Beer Used As Medical Remedy

Sumerian physicians prescribe beer for certain ailments.


2100 BC

Ur-Nammu Publishes Legal Code

King Ur-Nammu (or possibly his son, Shulgi) of the Sumerian city of Ur's 3rd dynasty, collects local city laws and publishes them in a code designed for general use. A large police force is created to uphold these laws. Ur-Nammu also standardizes Sumerian weights and measures, and, in honor of the moon god Nanna, builds a canal and rebuilds part of the ziggurat of Ur.


2100? BC

Dams and Canals on the Nile

Egyptians build a highly advanced water-supply system along the Nile River, consisting of wells, storage reservoirs, dams, and canals. The waterworks system enables Egyptians to control floods during the rainy season and irrigate croplands during the dry season.


2040 BC - 1650 BC

Middle Kingdom of Egypt

The Thebans reunify the Kingdom of Egypt under King Mentuhotep II. They inaugurate the Classical period in Egypt, moving the capital back to the north and sponsoring both the physical and cultural revival of the kingdom. Provincial governors exercise great power, building their own temples and ruling virtually as kings. Because of the power of local rulers, some call the Middle Kingdom Egypt's Feudal Age.


2000? BC

Bullfighting Emerges in Crete

Men and women of the Aegean civilization engage in one of the earliest forms of the sport of bullfighting. As depicted in a mural painting from the period, the contest involves acrobatics, taunting the bull, and vaulting over the back of the bull. This illustration will be discovered in modern times at the site of the Minoan city of Knossos, on the island of Crete.


2000 BC - AD 200

Mesoamerica's Preclassic Period

Cultivation of beans and maize in Mesoamerica makes permanent village settlement possible. The development of population centers and stratified societies, with nobles and commoners, begins. Mesoamericans develop a sophisticated calendar system, they begin writing in hieroglyphics, and they build temple mounds. Olmec civilization develops at this time.


2000? BC

Chinese Develop Acupuncture

The Chinese use stone needles for acupuncture, a medical procedure involving insertion and manipulation of needles at various points in the human body. The origins of this procedure are unknown.


2000 BC

Babylonians Solve Quadratic Equations

Writing on tablets, Babylonian mathematicians solve quadratic equations and demonstrate their discovery of what is now called the Pythagorean theorem.


2000? BC

Fowl Domesticated

Fowl are domesticated in the Indus River Valley, probably from a red jungle fowl, ancestor to the chicken.


2000? BC

Minoans Develop Ships

Minoans in Crete develop ships with log keels, ribbing, and planking on the sides to protect the bow against damage from waves.


2000? BC

Third Dynasty of Ur Ends

Sumer is invaded from the west by the Amorites (Semitic desert tribes), led by the king of Mari. Then, the Elamites invade from the east, and the city of Ur is besieged. The great 3rd Dynasty of Ur ends as the Elamites carry King Ibbi-Sin away in chains.


2000? BC

Oracle Bones Used in China

The scapula bones of pigs and oxen are used by priests to foretell events, providing a link between the human and cosmic worlds. The bones offer the first archaeological evidence of Chinese religious ritual, and their inscriptions constitute the first known Chinese writing.


2000? BC - 258? BC

Kingdom of Van Lang Established

According to Vietnamese legend, the Hung dynasty rules over settlers in the Red River delta, forming the first Vietnamese kingdom, called Van Lang. In about 258 BC Van Lang is conquered by Thuc Phan (also known as An Duong), a neighboring warlord, who renames the kingdom Au Lac.


2000? BC - 1700? BC

Palaces Show Minoan Skill

Minoan civilization enters its Palatial period with the construction of palaces at Knossos, Phaestos, and Mallia on the island of Crete. The palaces, built around large open courts, show advanced engineering skill. For the first time, columns are incorporated into the design. The palaces become a focus for settlement and cult as well as for political power.


2000 BC - AD 1000?

Bantu Expansion

The Bantu speakers carry an agricultural way of life from western Africa into the area of the continent south of the equator. The Bantus domesticate plants and animals and introduce metallurgy, laying the foundation for complex societies to follow. The Bantu expansion is one of the largest in human history.


1991 BC

Amenemhet I Takes the Throne

Amenemhet I comes to the throne, ushering in Egypt’s 12th Dynasty. He establishes Itjtawy, a new capital farther north in the region of Faiyum, close to Memphis.


1972 BC - 1962 BC

Father and Son Reign Jointly

Sesostris I reigns jointly in Egypt with his father, King Amenemhet I. Amenemhet I makes his son his coregent to ensure that the dynasty will continue, a practice sustained by subsequent rulers. After ten years of rule, Amenemhet I dies, leaving Sesostris I as the sole king of Egypt in 1962 BC.


1963? BC

Egyptian Forces Invade Nubia

Kings Amenemhet I and Sesostris I, father and son coregents of Egypt, send forces south to conquer Nubia, the region between Aswân, Egypt, and Khartoum (in what is later Sudan). They begin construction of a series of fortresses in the northern part of Nubia. The building project will continue for about 100 years, reaching its height under Sesostris III. The completed chain of fortresses will form a protective barrier stretching several hundred miles along the Nile River. Despite hostilities, there will be much intermarriage and cultural interaction between Nubians and Egyptians.


1960? BC

Egyptian Popular Literature

Egyptian readers have become avid fans of “The Story of Sinuhe.” A fictional character, Sinuhe is an official in the palace of King Amenemhet I. After the death of the king, Sinuhe flees the country to become the powerful leader of a desert tribe. Sinuhe’s thoughts and feelings are copiously described, a characteristic popular with readers.


1955 BC

Lament Written for Ur

A Babylonian writes a lament for the destruction of Ur, the ancient city in Sumer.


1900? BC

Dawn of Power in Babylon

Sumer has undergone an influx of Semitic peoples and relapsed into its old condition of warfare between cities. In the midst of this strife, the city of Babylon begins to acquire importance.


1900 BC

Merchant Colonies Form

Assyrian merchants are encouraged by the state to set up colonies of merchants as a way of developing economic and political connections in new areas. The colonies are run by Assyrian families from Ashur, the capital. Colonies generally trade in local goods as well as in Assyrian exports, and colony banks help fund the commercial operations.


1900? BC - 1200? BC

Hittites Emerge in Asia Minor

The Hittites invade the central plateau of Anatolia (in modern-day Turkey and northern Syria). After gaining control of copper, silver, and iron mines, they establish an important role in long-distance trade. They also gain a military edge by developing and using horse-drawn chariots.


1900? BC

Sumerians Revise Cuneiform Script

The Sumerians reduce cuneiform script to about 600 characters.


1900? BC - 539 BC

Babylonian Civilization

The Babylonian civilization is composed of about a dozen cities occupying the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. With a culture based on its Sumerian heritage, a healthy agricultural economy, and a relatively stable monarchy, the civilization remains unchanged for more than 1,000 years. High points in Babylonian history include the reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), who devises an important law code, and expanded territory and power under the Kassites, around 1570 BC). The Chaldean period, beginning in the 9th century BC), marks the civilization’s zenith, including the legendary creation of the Hanging Gardens. The Babylonians are defeated by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, but their contributions to world cultures endure for centuries.


1900? BC

Knowledge of Geometry Documented

Egyptian scholars write a document on papyrus that contains a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, documenting Egyptian knowledge of geometry.


1840? BC

Art of Sculpture Revitalized

Egyptian sculpture enters a particularly creative phase during the 12th Dynasty. A prime example of sculpture from this era is the carved head of Amenemhet III, crafted in granite.


1800? BC

Babylon Adopts Lunar Calendar

The Babylonian Empire standardizes the year by adopting the lunar calendar of Nippur, the Sumerian sacred city. Previously, each city inserted months into the calendar according to its own needs.


1800? BC - 800 BC

Initial Period of Andean Civilization

Elaborate ceremonial complexes of the initial Andean civilizations develop in inland coastal valleys. The largest settlements number several thousand people, who often use irrigation for farming squash, beans, maize, cotton, and other food staples. Public architecture includes characteristic plazas and large pyramids.


1800? BC

Babylon Falls Under Kassite Rule

The Babylonians fall under Kassite rule, but remain prosperous. The Kassites, who may have originated in the Zagros Mountains of modern southern Iran, peacefully rule Babylon for 400 years.

1792 BC

Hammurabi Establishes Babylonian Empire

King Hammurabi the Great establishes the first Babylonian Empire and ushers in an era of peace, prosperity, and law and order. He extends his empire west to the Mediterranean, east to Elam, and north to the land of the Assyrians, conquering their city of Eshnunna.


1790? BC

Code of Hammurabi

Babylonian king Hammurabi creates a law code, inscribed on a tablet, to be followed by judges in a formal judicial system. His code includes laws relating to medical practice, such as detailed fee regulations and harsh penalties for malpractice. The provides the first clear evidence of a civilization divided into distinct social classes: free property owners, dependent farmers and artisans, and slaves.

1766? BC - 1027? BC

Shang Dynasty

The legendary founder of the Shang dynasty is Tang, who overthrows the last monarch of the Xia dynasty. The Shang dynasty is based on direct rule by its emperor, with a royal family and an aristocracy to run the provinces. Under Shang rule, the government promotes trade networks and a uniform code of writing is developed.


1766? BC - 1027? BC

Lacquerwork Appears in China

Lacquerwork, made by applying the sap of a sumac tree as a varnish on a wooden surface, probably originates in China’s Shang dynasty. Impervious to moisture and easily colored, lacquerwork gradually evolves into one of the great decorative arts of the world.


1760 BC

Hammurabi Destroys Mari

King Hammurabi destroys the city of Mari in the north of the Babylonian Empire.
1766? BC - 1027? BC


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